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Menstruation Information

Menstruation is the shedding of the uterine lining (endometrium). It occurs on a regular basis in sexually reproductive-age females of certain mammal species. This article focuses on human menstruation.

People typically stop menstruating if they conceive or if they are breastfeeding. Menstruation lasts from puberty to menopause.

Contents

Overview

Regular menstruation (also called eumenorrhea) lasts for a few days, usually 3 to 5 days, but anywhere from 2 to 8 days is considered normal.[1] The average menstrual cycle is 28 days long from the first day of one menstrual period to the first day of the next. A normal menstrual cycle is typically between 21 and 35 days between menstrual periods.[2]:p.381 The premenstrual time period is termed molimina and symptoms (other than bleeding) preceding menstruation are termed moliminal.[3]

The average volume of menstrual fluid during a monthly menstrual period is 35 milliliters (or 4 to 6 tablespoons of menstrual fluid) with 10–80 milliliters considered typical. Menstrual fluid is the correct name for the menstrual flow, although many people prefer to refer to it as menstrual blood. Menstrual fluid in fact contains some blood, as well as cervical mucus, vaginal secretions, and endometrial tissue. Menstrual fluid is reddish-brown, a slightly darker colour than blood.[2]:p.381

Many people also notice shedding of their uterus's endometrium lining during menstruation. The shed endometrium lining appears as small pieces of tissue mixed with the blood. These pieces of tissue are often called menstrual clots (although they are pieces of the endometrium, and are not true blood clots) and are common; they more frequently occur in people who experience a heavier-than-average menstrual flow.[4] Sometimes this is incorrectly thought to indicate an early-term miscarriage of an embryo. An enzyme called plasmin — contained in the endometrium – tends to inhibit the blood from clotting.

The amount of iron lost via menstrual fluid is relatively insignificant for most women.[5] In one study, premenopausal women who exhibited symptoms of iron deficiency were given endoscopies. 86% of them actually had gastrointestinal disease and were at risk of being misdiagnosed simply because they were menstruating.[6]

The first experience of a menstrual period during puberty is called menarche. The average age of menarche is 13, but menarche can typically occur between ages 8 and 18.[2]:p.381[7] Perimenopause is when fertility in a female declines, and menstruation may occur infrequently in the years leading up to menopause, when a female stops menstruating completely and is no longer fertile. Menopause typically occurs between the late 40s and 50s[2]:p.381 in Western countries.

Physical experience

See also: Premenstrual syndrome

In most females, various physical changes are brought about by natural fluctuations in hormone levels during the menstrual cycle, and by muscle contractions (menstrual cramping) involving the uterus that can precede or accompany menstruation. Some may notice water retention, changes in sex drive, fatigue, breast tenderness, or nausea. Breast swelling and discomfort may be caused by water retention during menstruation.[8] Usually, such sensations are mild, and some people notice very few physical changes associated with menstruation. A healthy diet, reduced consumption of salt, caffeine and alcohol, and regular exercise are often effective in controlling these physical changes.[9] Typical physical changes related to menstruation are not ordinarily considered to be true Premenstrual Syndrome. However, it is common for non-medical people to refer to these physical changes colloquially as "PMS symptoms". The sensations experienced vary from person to person and from cycle to cycle.

Painful menstrual cramps

Many women experience painful uterine cramps during menstruation. The muscles of the uterus, and abdominal muscles surrounding the uterus, contract spasmodically to push the menstrual fluid out of the uterus. The contractions are produced by the tissue lining the uterus, which is believed to release an excess of fatty acids called prostaglandins that stimulate the muscles, leading to contractions. This is called primary dysmenorrhea. Primary dysmenorrhea usually begins within a year or two of menarche. It may continue until menopause, but many people find that their symptoms of dysmenorrhea gradually subside after their mid-20s. If the pain occurs between menstrual periods, or lasts longer than the first few days of the period, it is called secondary dysmenorrhea.[2]:p.379

Symptoms of dysmenorrhea may become debilitating in some people. It is unknown why this occurs in some people and not others. Severe symptoms may include pain spreading to hips, lower back and thighs, nausea and frequent diarrhea or constipation. Treatments target excess prostaglandin, using anti-prostaglandin medications or oral contraceptives. Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDS), such as over-the-counter ibuprofen and naproxen, may ease symptoms.[2]:p.379

Emotional and psychological experience

Some women experience emotional disturbances associated with their menstruation. These range from the irritability, to tiredness, or "weepiness" (i.e. easily provoked tearfulness). A similar range of emotional effects and mood swings is associated with pregnancy.[10] The prevalence of PMS is estimated to be between 3%[11] and 30%.[12] More severe symptoms of anxiety or depression may be signs of Premenstrual Syndrome. Rarely, in individuals susceptible to psychotic episodes, menstruation may be a trigger (menstrual psychosis).

Premenstrual Syndrome

In some cases, stronger physical and emotional or psychological sensations may become debilitating, and include significant menstrual pain (dysmenorrhea), migraine headaches, and severe depression. Dysmenorrhea, or severe uterine pain, is particularly common for adolescents and young females (one study found that 67.2% of girls aged 13–19 suffer from it).[13] This phenomenon is called Premenstrual Syndrome. More severe symptoms may be classified as Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder (PMDD).

Menstrual disorders

It should be noted that there is a wide spectrum of differences between how people may experience menstruation. What may indicate a more serious physical problem for one person, may be quite normal for another. There are several ways that a person's menstrual cycle can differ from the norm, any of which should be discussed with a doctor to identify the underlying cause:

Symptom See article
Infrequent periods Oligomenorrhea
Short or extremely light periods Hypomenorrhea
Too-frequent periods (defined as more frequently than every 21 days) Polymenorrhea
Extremely heavy or long periods (one guideline is soaking a sanitary napkin or tampon every hour or so, or menstruating for longer than 7 days) Hypermenorrhea
Extremely painful periods Dysmenorrhea
Breakthrough bleeding (also called spotting) between periods; normal in many people Metrorrhagia
Absent periods Amenorrhea

Dysfunctional uterine bleeding is a hormonally caused bleeding abnormality. Dysfunctional uterine bleeding typically occurs in premenopausal females who do not ovulate normally (i.e. are anovulatory). All these bleeding abnormalities need medical attention; they may indicate hormone imbalances, uterine fibroids, or other problems. As pregnant women may bleed, a pregnancy test forms part of the evaluation of abnormal bleeding.

Menstruation and pregnancy

Menstruation is the most visible phase of the menstrual cycle, and corresponds closely with the hormonal cycle, and is therefore used as the limit between cycles; Menstrual cycles are counted from the first day of menstrual bleeding, a point in time commonly termed last menstrual period (LMP). The time from LMP until ovulation is, on average, 14.6[14] days, but with substantial variation both between people and between cycles in any single person, with an overall 95% prediction interval of 8.2 to 20.5[14] days.

During pregnancy and for some time after childbirth, menstruation is normally suspended; this state is known as amenorrhoea, i.e. absence of the menstrual cycle. If menstruation has not resumed, fertility is low during lactation. The average length of postpartum amenorrhoea is longer when certain breastfeeding practices are followed; this may be done intentionally as birth control.

Use of synthetic hormones to control menstruation

Since the late 1960s, many people have chosen to control the frequency of menstruation with long-acting hormonal birth control, often simply called 'the pill'. They are most often combined hormone pills containing estrogen and are taken in 28 day cycles, 21 hormonal pills with either a 7 day break from pills, or 7 placebo pills during which the person menstruates. Hormonal contraception acts by using low doses of hormones to prevent ovulation, and thus prevent conception in sexually active females. But by using placebo pills for a 7-day span during the month, a regular bleeding period is still experienced.

Injections such as depo-provera became available in the 1960s. Progestogen implants such as Norplant in the 1980s and extended cycle combined oral contraceptive pills in the early 2000s.

Using synthetic hormones, it is possible for a person to completely eliminate menstrual periods.[15] When using progestogen implants, menstruation may be reduced to 3 or 4 menstrual periods per year. By taking progestogen-only contraceptive pills (sometimes called the 'mini-pill') continuously without a 7-day span of using placebo pills, the menstrual period is eliminated entirely. Some people do this simply for convenience in the short-term,[16] while others prefer to eliminate periods altogether when possible.

Menstrual suppression

Some people use hormonal contraception in this way to eliminate their periods for months or years at a time, a practise called menstrual suppression. When the first birth control pill was being developed, the researchers were aware that they could use the contraceptive to space menstrual periods up to 90 days apart, but they settled on a 28-day cycle that would mimic a natural menstrual cycle and produce monthly periods. The intention behind this decision was the hope of the inventor, John Rock, to win approval for his invention from the Roman Catholic Church. That attempt failed, but the 28-day cycle remained the standard when the pill became available to the public.[17] There is debate among medical researchers about the potential long-term impacts of these practises upon female health. Some researchers point to the fact that historically, females have had far fewer menstrual periods throughout their lifetimes, a result of shorter life expectancies, as well as a greater length of time spent pregnant or breast-feeding, which reduced the number of periods experienced by females.[18] These researchers believe that the higher number of menstrual periods experienced by females in modern societies may have a negative impact upon their health. On the other hand, some researchers believe there is a greater potential for negative impacts from exposing females perhaps unnecessarily to regular low doses of synthetic hormones over their reproductive years.[19][20]

Menstrual products

Main article: Menstrual product

Most people use something to absorb or catch their menses. There are a number of different methods available.

Reusable items

Menstrual cup Cloth menstrual pad

Disposable items

Disposable softcup Disposable sanitary napkin
Tampon

In addition to products to contain the menstrual flow, pharmaceutical companies likewise provide products – commonly non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) — to relieve menstrual cramps. Some herbs, such as dong quai, raspberry leaf and crampbark, are also claimed to relieve menstrual pain;[21] however there is no documented scientific evidence to prove this.

Culture and menstruation

Main article: Culture and menstruation

Many religions have menstruation-related traditions. These may be bans on certain actions during menstruation (such as intercourse in some movements of Judaism and Islam), or rituals to be performed at the end of each menses (such as the mikvah in Judaism and the ghusl in Islam). Some traditional societies sequester females in residences, "menstrual huts", that are reserved for that exclusive purpose until the end of their menstrual period. In Hinduism, it is also frowned upon to go to a temple and do pooja (prayer) or do pooja at religious events if you are a woman who is menstruating. Saraswati, the Hindu goddess of knowledge, is associated with menstruation. Her name literally means "flow – woman." Metaformic Theory, as proposed by cultural theorist Judy Grahn and others, places menstruation as a central organizing idea in the creation of culture and the formation of humans' earliest rituals.

Evolution

All female placental mammals have a uterine lining that builds up when the animal is fertile, but is dismantled when the animal is infertile. All female mammals have an estrous cycle, yet only primates (including humans) have a menstrual cycle. Some anthropologists have questioned the energy cost of rebuilding the endometrium every fertility cycle. However, anthropologist Beverly Strassmann has proposed that the energy savings of not having to continuously maintain the uterine lining more than offsets energy cost of having to rebuild the lining in the next fertility cycle, even in species such as humans where much of the lining is lost through bleeding (overt menstruation) rather than reabsorbed (covert menstruation).[22][23] However, even in humans, much of it is re-absorbed.

Many have questioned the evolution of overt menstruation in humans and related species, speculating on what advantage there could be to losing blood associated with dismantling the endometrium rather than absorbing it, as most mammals do.

Beginning in 1971, some research suggested that menstrual cycles of co-habiting human females became synchronized. A few anthropologists hypothesized that in hunter-gatherer societies, males would go on hunting journeys whilst the females of the tribe were menstruating, speculating that the females would not have been as receptive to sexual relations while menstruating.[24][25] However, there is currently significant dispute as to whether menstrual synchrony exists.[26]

Humans do, in fact, reabsorb about two-thirds of the endometrium each cycle. Strassmann asserts that overt menstruation occurs not because it is beneficial in itself. Rather, the fetal development of these species requires a more developed endometrium, one which is too thick to reabsorb completely. Strassman correlates species that have overt menstruation to those that have a large uterus relative to the adult female body size.[22]

Further reading

See also

Footnotes

  1. ^ "Menstruation and the Menstrual Cycle". Womenshealth.gov. November 2002. Archived from the original on 2 Mar 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070302205256/http://www.4woman.gov/faq/menstru.htm. Retrieved 11 June 2005.
  2. ^ a b c d e f Ziporyn, Karen J. Carlson, Stephanie A. Eisenstat, Terra (2004). The new Harvard guide to women's health. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-01343-3.
  3. ^ https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/molimina
  4. ^ "Menstrual blood problems: Clots, color and thickness". WebMD. http://women.webmd.com/menstrual-blood-problems-clots-color-and-thickness. Retrieved 20 September 2011.
  5. ^ [|Clancy]. "Iron-deficiency is not something you get just for being a lady". SciAm. http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/context-and-variation/2011/07/27/iron-deficiency-anemia/. Retrieved 6 March 2012.
  6. ^ Kepczyk; Cremins, Long, Bachinski, Smith, & McNally (Jan 1999). "A prospective, multidisciplinary evaluation of premenopausal women with iron-deficiency anemia". American Journal of Gastroenterology (94): 109–115. http://www.nature.com/ajg/journal/v94/n1/full/ajg199914a.html. Retrieved 6 March 2012.
  7. ^ http://www.patient.co.uk/doctor/Normal-Menstruation.htm
  8. ^ Price, W. A.; Giannini, A. J. (1983). "Binge eating during menstruation". The Journal of clinical psychiatry 44 (11): 431. PMID 6580290.
  9. ^ "Water retention: Relieve this premenstrual symptom". Mayo Clinic. http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/water-retention/WO00130. Retrieved 20 September 2011.
  10. ^ Giannini AJ, Price WA, Loiselle RH (June 1984). "beta-Endorphin withdrawal: a possible cause of premenstrual tension syndrome". Int J Psychophysiol 1 (4): 341–3. doi:10.1016/0167-8760(84)90028-X. PMID 6094401.
  11. ^ "NIH Press Release-Hormones Trigger PMS Symptoms – 21 January 1998". http://www.nih.gov/news/pr/jan98/nimh-21.htm. Retrieved 28 February 2008
  12. ^ Dean BB, Borenstein JE, Knight K, Yonkers K (2006). "Evaluating the criteria used for identification of PMS". J Womens Health (Larchmt) 15 (5): 546–55. doi:10.1089/jwh.2006.15.546. PMID 16796482
  13. ^ Sharma P, Malhotra C, Taneja DK, Saha R (2008). "Problems related to menstruation amongst adolescent girls". Indian J Pediatr 75 (2): 125–9. doi:10.1007/s12098-008-0018-5. PMID 18334791
  14. ^ a b Geirsson, R. T. (1991). "Ultrasound instead of last menstrual period as the basis of gestational age assignment". Ultrasound in Obstetrics and Gynecology 1 (3): 212. doi:10.1046/j.1469-0705.1991.01030212.x. PMID 12797075. [1]
  15. ^ "Delaying your period with birth control pills". Mayo Clinic. http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/womens-health/WO00069. Retrieved 20 September 2011.
  16. ^ "How can I delay my period while on holiday?". National Health Service, United Kingdom. http://www.nhs.uk/chq/Pages/830.aspx?CategoryID=60&SubCategoryID=179. Retrieved 20 September 2011.
  17. ^ "Do you really need to have a period every month?". Discovery Health. http://health.howstuffworks.com/sexual-health/female-reproductive-system/monthly-period2.htm. Retrieved 20 September 2011.
  18. ^ Amy Lind, Stephanie Brzuzy (2007). Battleground: Women, Gender, and Sexuality: Volume 2: M-Z. Greenwood. pp. 348. ISBN 978-0-313-34039-0.
  19. ^ Kam, Katherine. "Eliminate periods with birth control?". WebMD. http://www.webmd.com/sex/birth-control/features/no-more-periods. Retrieved 20 September 2011.
  20. ^ Clark-Flory, Tracy. "The end of menstruation". Salon. http://www.salon.com/life/feature/2008/02/04/menstruation. Retrieved 20 September 2011.
  21. ^ "Herbs For Premenstrual Syndrome". HerbalRemedies.com. 2004. http://www.herbalremediesinfo.com/premenstrualsyndrome.html. Retrieved 8 August 2006.
  22. ^ a b Strassmann, B. I. (1996). "The evolution of endometrial cycles and menstruation". The Quarterly review of biology 71 (2): 181–220. PMID 8693059.
  23. ^ Kathleen O'Grady (2000). Is Menstruation Obsolete?. The Canadian Women's Health Network. http://www.cwhn.ca/resources/menstruation/obsolete.html. Retrieved 21 January 2007.
  24. ^ Desmond Morris (1997). The Human Sexes. Cambridge University Press.
  25. ^ Chris Knight (1991). Blood relations: menstruation and the origins of culture. New Haven, Conn: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-06308-3.
  26. ^ Adams, Cecil (20 December 2002). "Does menstrual synchrony really exist?". The Straight Dope. The Chicago Reader. http://www.straightdope.com/columns/021220.html. Retrieved 10 January 2007.
Human physiology and endocrinology of sexual reproduction
Menstrual and estrous cycle Menstruation · Follicular phase · Ovulation · Luteal phase
Gametogenesis Spermatogenesis (spermatogonium, spermatocyte, spermatid, sperm) · Oogenesis (oogonium, oocyte, ootid, ovum) · Germ cell (gonocyte, gamete)
Human sexual behavior Sexual intercourse · Masturbation · Erection · Orgasm · Ejaculation · Insemination · Fertilisation/Fertility · Implantation · Pregnancy · Postpartum period · Mechanics of sex
Life span

Prenatal development/Sexual dimorphism/Sexual differentiation (Feminization, Virilization) · Puberty (Gonadarche, Pubarche, Menarche, Adrenarche) ·

Maternal age / Paternal age · Climacteric (Menopause, Andropause)
Egg (biology) Ovum · Oviposition · Oviparity · Ovoviviparity · Vivipary
Reproductive endocrinology and infertility Hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis · Andrology · Hormone
Breast Thelarche · Lactation · Breastfeeding

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Menstrual cycle
Events and phases Menstruation · Follicular phase · Ovulation · Luteal phase
Life stages Menarche · Menopause
Tracking
Signs Basal body temperature · Cervical mucus · Mittelschmerz
Systems Fertility awareness · Calendar-based methods · Billings Ovulation Method · Creighton Model
Suppression Extended cycle combined hormonal contraceptive · Lactational amenorrhea method
Disorders Amenorrhoea · Anovulation · Dysmenorrhea · Hypomenorrhea · Irregular menstruation · Menometrorrhagia · Menorrhagia · Metrorrhagia · Oligomenorrhea
Related events Folliculogenesis · Menstrual synchrony · Premenstrual syndrome / Premenstrual dysphoric disorder
In culture and religion Chhaupadi · Menstrual taboo · Niddah

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'Menstruation' Definition

Noun

menstruation (countable and uncountable; plural menstruations)
  1. The periodic discharging of the menses, the flow of blood and cells from the lining of the uterus in females of humans and other primates.
Related terms
from: Wiktionary: menstruation,
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